The Moroccan-American relations

Morocco and the United States have long-standing relationships, initiated in 1786 by the ratification by the US Congress of the treaty of peace and friendship between the two countries. This historical legitimacy has gained momentum with the launch of the strategic dialogue between Morocco and the United States on October 13, 2012. Focused on geopolitics and interests of both parties, a common agenda has been traced to a new dynamic to bilateral partnership. 
The launch of the strategic dialogue in October 2012 was a major turning point in relations between Morocco and the United States. The two countries have, in effect, sealed a strategic partnership covering several areas of cooperation. According to a source at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, this new cooperation framework is a strong signal to the entire region on Washington's willingness to establish partnerships with countries able to share the same vision and values for building a better future for the MENA region. It is also to develop an innovative framework for cooperation built on common interests and able to face the challenges the entire area is facing. The Moroccan-American partnership covers four areas: political dialogue, economic, commercial and financial aspects, cultural cooperation, science and technology and cooperation in the security sphere.
Politically, the two parties agree to support and encourage consultations and meetings between the two countries to harmonize and coordinate the positions on issues of common interest. Political dialogue is, in fact, to strengthen cooperation within the United Nations, its specialized agencies and other international organizations to support the peaceful settlement of disputes and conflicts. Both parties have agreed to "consult and work together to contribute to the prevention and peaceful resolution of conflicts in some parts of the African continent, to work actively to achieve a comprehensive, just and sustainable in the Middle East, based on the relevant UN resolutions, and to contribute actively to the disarmament process at the international and regional levels, including through the strengthening of non-proliferation regimes of weapons of mass destruction and related technologies. "
The economic, commercial and financial level, the two countries aim to diversify the bilateral partnership. Achieve this objective is through the implementation of joint projects of common interest and the promotion of trade by facilitating the movement of people and goods. The achievement of expected economic purposes depends on the promotion of links between banking networks, chambers of commerce and industry and professional associations and unions in both countries. It must be said that since the establishment of the Free Trade Agreement between the two countries, efforts have been made in this area, but they still fall short of aspirations. The FTA has certainly paved the way for new opportunities for trade and investment. But it has yet to implement a number of measures to balance the economic relations between the two parties and overcome the technical problems that hamper the flow of trade.
It should be recalled in this context that in the Moroccan-American conference on business development, held on December 4, 2012 in Washington, the two countries have shown their willingness to develop bilateral trade, especially in the areas of agriculture, aerospace, automotive, renewable energy and infrastructure.
A trade facilitation agreement was initialed on this occasion providing new standards of transparency and predictability in customs matters to simplify export procedures of the products of small and large companies to the markets of both countries. Other working mechanisms have been launched recently to promote the dynamics of regional economic integration, such as NAPEO (the North African Partnership for Economic Opportunities) and the "Atlantic Bridge".
Regarding cultural cooperation, scientific and technical, it relates to education, vocational training, culture, science and technology innovation. It tends to encourage meetings and bilateral contacts between universities, academies of sciences, research institutions, libraries, and organizations of the two countries operating in the fields of youth and sports, media, arts and archives. In terms of cooperation in the security sphere, it has consolidated since the granting to Morocco's strategic ally status not a member of NATO. It covers various areas: the fight against terrorism, money laundering, human trafficking and drug trafficking. This cooperation also extends to regional security partnership (Sahara and Sahel and Horn of Africa) and continental, including through crisis management and peace building. Added to this is the participation of the Kingdom two initiatives by Africom: "Partnership against Terrorism" (TSCTP) and "Operation Enduring Freedom in the Trans Sahara" (OEF-TS). Joint military exercises are organized annually, including the operation "African Lion"  

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Torch Operation, North Africa 1942

"Okay, okay, come on bye bye". Here's how Moroccans lived the landing of US soldiers, Morocco, in 1942. The will of Hitler to dominate Europe in the events of World War II pushed the Allied powers - Britain, France, Morocco, USSR, United States ..., to defeat Hitler armies to open several fronts.
That of North Africa marked the beginning of the defeat of the German armies.
November 8, 1942, American forces landed in Casablanca, Safi, and Fedala Mehdia; the same day, the Anglo-American troops landed in Oran and Algiers. It was "Operation Torch" - code name - or "War of the Three Days." This landing, followed 67 days later by the Conference of Anfa, would shorten the Second World War and change the face of the world. The Nazi invasion of Europe plan, which was developed at the aforementioned conference helped to turn the tide in favor of the Allies, especially in Morocco rallying to their cause, until pro-Axis forces. These events were an important step in the march towards independence from Morocco. Despite the significant risk that the Allies were running to see their plan of attack unveiled Casablancans could observe, for a week and shortly before landing, inscribed on the walls of their city painting, dated 8 nomvembre 1942 . A harbinger. The American landing in Casablanca. Leaflets dropped by US aircraft at the time of that landing reassured the public that the Americans came as liberators, not conquerors. But General Nogues, Resident General of France, faithful to Marshal Petain, decided to resist the American forces, despite the favorable position them to King Mohammed V, who had refused to withdraw to Fez, as requested by the General. After the entry into the war the United States, Allied had not yet determined where they would open a front against Germany. It was not until 24 July 1942 that the fate of the Second World War was to be played. The Staff combined Anglo-American, saw the political and strategic interest to set up a landing operation forces simultaneously in Morocco and Algeria, to establish a base from which the big attack would be launched against Hitler in Europe. Several German officers were convinced of the strategic importance of the Mediterranean, and Morocco in particular. They tried to persuade Hitler to seize Gibraltar, lock the entrance to the Mediterranean, crossing the Strait and land in Morocco, 15 km away, visible in clear weather. But Hitler gave priority to the attack against Russia. King Mohammed V understood, in October 1940, that "Who would lose the Mediterranean, would lose the war."
Route through the Maghreb 
The attack convoys for Safi sectors Fedala and Mehdia departed from Norfolk. Blankets forces sailed to Casco Bay. They joined five aircraft carriers Bermuda parties to form the most fantastic naval force ever launched in the oceans. An armada DE102 buildings with a linear length of 50 km by 40 wide to cross more than 8000 km on infested ocean of German submarines, the famous U-boats.
For feint these, the route taken was made to believe that the convoy was heading to Dakar. The course was going to be handed over Morocco thereafter. When the orders reached against-the Axis submarines, it was already too late. The GI's were taking foot on the Moroccan coast. They are found no Germans, but a local army determined to defend the French Empire against any aggression. General Bethouart, commander of the Casablanca Division, had agreed to facilitate Operation Torch. Because of the mystery that surrounded that transaction, it would be informed of the place, date and time as the day before, which did not fail to be the cause of the failure of the military coup that had fomented . The rapid intervention of General Patton, from the landing, and his companions escaped the firing squad. US forces, 9,000 men and 65 tanks, landed at Mehdia to capture the air base of Port Lyautey (Kenitra). Casablanca to occupy the north and from the south, they landed 19,000 men and 65 tanks to Fedala and 6 500 men and 108 tanks in Safi. 172 were loaded on the aircraft carriers of the squadron provided air support. If Mehdia, Fedala and Safi, operations were relatively easy, however, in Casablanca, a great battle, especially naval, raged for three days. It is only when the port was in ruins, fire and cemetery of wrecks, full of dead and wounded who withdrew hour after hour, that General Nogues and Admiral Michelier did stop the fighting, just in time to avoid the bombardment of Casablanca. Indeed, the refusal Nogues and Michelier to surrender, General Patton, surrounded the city and decided to finish. Casablanca attack the next day at 7 pm 30 am. Although it was repugnant to reduce in Dar El Beida ashes, he ordered a naval and air bombardment. At midnight, his plans were drawn and his men were ready for battle. At 4 pm 30 am, his intelligence officer told him that the local army prepared to surrender.
Capitulation

Essayez avec cette orthographe : Le général Patton refuse d'annuler l'attaque de Casablanca avant que la capitulation ne soit effective. Le général Noguès et l'amiral Michelier ordonnèrent donc à leurs troupes de cesser le feu immédiatement. La garnison de Casablanca rendit les armes et accepta de cantonner ses troupes dans leurs casernes. Seul le Jean Bart, puissant cuirassé de 35 000 tonnes, en voulait encore aux Américains. Il continua à lâcher ses bordées de 380 mm, répétées toutes les demi-heures, ce qui avait fait dire au contre-amiral Mac Whorter : « Faites-moi taire ce monstre ». Les aviateurs américains le rendirent effectivement muet. La fin des hostilités fut saluée par des manifestations de joie des Casablancais. Les Américains ne furent des ennemis que pendant trois jours. Le général Patton avait son quartier général aux Roches Noires, qu'il déplaça ensuite dans les locaux de la Shell, et ses appartements à l'hôtel Majestic. Des campements avaient été installés, par l'armée, dans plusieurs endroits de la ville, et notamment, à l'emplacement actuel de la Fontaine lumineuse. Des maisons en préfabriqué pour abriter les bureaux, et les logements des officiers supérieurs furent installés à Ouled Haddou, actuelle California de Casablanca, en raison de son climat qui avait été comparé à celui de la Californie. L'architecte de l'Opération Torch, Robert Murphy, aura été le seul civil de toute l'histoire américaine, à servir dans l'État-major d'un chef de guerre, sur le théâtre des opérations, avec accès à toutes les informations militaires. Il fut mêlé aux généraux Marshall, Eisenhower, Patton, Mac Arthur, Clark et Bradley. Le Général De Gaulle, qui ne devait en aucun cas, être mis au courant du débarquement du 8 novembre, comprit que le prénom de Robert, contenu dans le fameux message de la BBC, répété un nombre incalculable de fois depuis le 2 du même mois, était celui de Murphy. Le speaker de la BBC, répétait : « Allô Robert Franklin arrive ». Robert Murphy était présent à la Conférence d'Anfa et au dîner offert par le Président Roosevelt en l'honneur de feu S.M. Mohammed V. Il était également présent lors de l'entretien que le Président eut avec le Roi, en présence de Son altesse Royale le Prince Moulay Hassan, actuel Roi du Maroc, et le Premier Ministre britannique Churchill.

General Patton refused to cancel the attack in Casablanca before the surrender becomes effective. General Nogues and Admiral Michelier therefore ordered their troops to cease fire immediately. Garrison Casablanca surrendered and agreed to confine its troops to barracks. Only the Jean Bart, powerful battleship 35 000 tonnes, still wanted by the Americans. He continued to drop his lined with 380 mm, repeated every half hour, which was made to say against Admiral Mac Whorter: "Let me shut this monster." American airmen actually made him mute. The end of hostilities was greeted with joy the Casablanca events. The Americans were not the enemy for three days. General Patton had his headquarters at Roches Noires, he then moved to the premises of Shell, and apartments at the Hotel Majestic. Camps were set up by the army in several places in the city, especially at the current location of the light Fontaine. Prefabricated houses to house the offices and homes of senior officers were installed in Ouled Haddou, current California Casablanca, because of its climate which was compared to that of California.
The architect of Operation Torch, Robert Murphy, has been the only civilian in all of American history to serve in the General Staff of a warlord in the theater of operations, with access to all military information. He was involved in the Marshall generals, Eisenhower, Patton, MacArthur Clark and Bradley.
General De Gaulle, who should in no case be made aware of the landing of 8 November, saw that the first name of Robert, contained in the famous message of the BBC, repeated countless times since 2nd of the month was that of Murphy. The announcer of the BBC, repeated: "Hello Robert Franklin arrives."
Robert Murphy was present at the Conference of Anfa and dinner hosted by President Roosevelt in honor of the late King Mohammed V. He was also present during the meeting the President had with the King, in the presence of His Highness Royal Prince Moulay Hassan, the current King of Morocco, and British Prime Minister Churchill.

 

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The American invasion of Morocco 1942

At the dawn of November 8, 1942, the Casablanca population is awakened by the roar of the sirens of the city, followed by a violent cannonade. The war, in its most brutal reality and its most cruel dimension, then arrives at the gates of Casablanca. The US Navy bombing, in fact, the French navy, moored in the harbor, which has received the order from the Vichy government to resist the American landing in Morocco. The shelling is intense, sometimes bombs miss their target and explode in neighborhoods around the port (including the old medina) and even beyond, making the first civilian victims of Operation Torch. During the three days that last battle of Casablanca, civilians, distressed by the turn of events, indeed lurk in their homes. The city loses its legendary agitation and feverish atmosphere. Casablanca however, avoids the worst, since the massive bombardment of the city, scheduled on November 11 by the Americans, was finally canceled after the announcement of the cease-fire ordered by the Resident General. Casablanca's population still has dozens of dead and wounded. A few weeks later, on the night of December 30 to 31, 1942, another bomb hit the city. It is this time a German air raid, led by eighteen aircraft from Toulouse, which aims at the port infrastructures, where fuel and American material accumulate. Hampered by US air defenses, the devices actually launch their bombs indiscriminately, affecting residential areas. And four bombs fall on the new medina, making 110 victims. This air raid on Casablanca is the only lead the Germans during the war. It is true that it costs them a lot for poor results, since during the return they lose 2/3 of their bombers, largely because of a lack of fuel!
Americanization of CASABLANCA 
After the American landing, population observes impressed, deployment force of the US Army in the various ports of the Kingdom, and against which the French power pales! A young French soldier Raymond Lescastreyres wrote at the time: "We are in awe of their equipment (...) what surprises us most is the sophistication of the equipment they are fitted. In comparison, ours is light years behind. »
For many months, then Casablanca offers an amazing face: tens of thousands of tons of material is temporarily stored in the city, before being transferred to the front of Tunisia (November 1942-May 1943) and to military camps where are equipped with new French units under Anfa agreements. Casablanca is transformed into real military warehouse in heaven opened its docks, just outside the harbor and even on its vast square Administrative (present Place Mohammed V), which hosts an assembly line for war vehicles!
The streets of coastal towns teeming with American uniforms. In cafés, in cinemas, in every public place, impossible not to notice these GI's colorful. And some fun sometimes down the streets of Casablanca ... A horse and gallop! Many people, young and adults, who discover or rediscover the chewing gum, chocolate bars, Coca Cola, American cigarettes. Small shops specialize in products inventory of the US military. Abraham Serfaty specify "the US presence in Morocco also brought me access to the vast literature of this country. In the stands, I was at rock bottom prices paperbacks sold by US soldiers and discovered and Hemingway, Steinbeck and many others. "
Meanwhile, new cultural ideals are spreading, as Americanization, which is reflected in the lifestyles and architecture of bourgeois dwelling. This is also the time when Hollywood is interested in Casablanca and made a film of the same name starring Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman!
The American influence in Morocco so inspired songwriter Lhoussine Slaoui, which composes a popular tune "Beautiful guy with blue eyes," whose lyrics are very significant, "Oh! Oh! How times have changed! The Americans came, people have become more assertive and women themselves comfortable (...) Even the old put veils and chew gum. The wives took pretext to leave their homes. The beautiful blue-eyed guy arrived with lots of gifts (...) They distribute candy, cigars and even dollars (...) Even the little girls learned the American. You hear nothing but OK, OK, Come On, Bye Bye! »
QUESTION OF THE INDEPENDENCE OF MOROCCO
The new global context resulting from the war fosters demand for independence within the Moroccan society and especially nationalists, hitherto subdued in claiming that no reforms within the Protectorate since the mid-1930s. Indeed, the defeat of France in 1940 and the divisions between French after this event shook the myth of the invulnerability of the occupying power. The American landing in Morocco made it even more sensitive weakening of France. To this are added the public echoes the interview Anfa start of 1943 between the Sultan Sidi Mohammed ben Youssef and US President Roosevelt and the leakage of these interviews, suggesting that many things are going become possible that were not before ...Relying, inter alia, the loyal attitude of the Sultan and the sacrifices of his people to support the war in France, Moroccan nationalist parties end up rejecting the principle of the reforms in the Protectorate and claim the Morocco's independence. The Manifesto of the nationalist Istiqlal Party, published on 11 January 1944, and says the principle of recognition of independence as a precondition for any agreement with France. Its success is such that it concerned the administration of the Protectorate. It is not yet ready to hear these claims and awkwardly responds with repression: demonstrations dispersed by force, arrests and convictions of the signatories. Street roars of loud noise will continue therefore to amplify ... Encouraged by this, by external factors, at the end of the war, such as the United Nations Charter, which proclaims the right of peoples to self-determination and the establishment of the Arab League in Egypt, which encourages the movement of emancipation of the Arab peoples. Therefore, the question of the independence of Morocco will gradually permeate the lives of all the inhabitants of the country. 
THE END OF THE WAR
For now, the Allied victory on May 8, 1945, is seen as a relief for the whole population in Morocco: Although dietary restrictions remain, the anguish of bereavement in thousands of Moroccan and French families finally disappears . In the days and weeks that follow, French and Moroccans reserve a triumphant welcome to the soldiers of the Army of Africa, parents, children or friends, Moroccan and French brothers in arms, who fought side by side for the liberation of Europe. Fleeting moments of sincere communion between two people, who are generally united remained in the race, beyond the continuing tensions. On 15 May 1945, at a reception given by the Sultan Sidi Mohammed ben Youssef, General Resident, Puaux makes a fitting tribute "to the Moroccan people who, animated by his endurance and discipline skills, was able to meet the call is its sovereign (...) to help the Allies of its resources and the value of his children. "The Second World War has resulted in a surge of the Moroccan people gave support to the cause of France and the Allies, whose daily was strongly marked. Elan full of hope back to ...

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Morocco during World War II

During World War II, Morocco is a true haven for refugees of all origins, fleeing a Europe subjected to the yoke of Nazism and fascism. It becomes a place of steps for those who want to flee to America, in neutral countries or continue the fight by winning England. For these people, life in Morocco looks softer than in occupied Europe. Despite the shortage and rationing, the food is better than in France, which is facing a real organized looting by Germany. In addition, there is no curfew or police terror imposed by the Nazis. The German presence in Morocco, in addition to two consulates in Tangiers and Ceuta, limited to German-Italian military commissions responsible for verifying compliance with the terms of the armistice of June 1940.
This task is first provided by the only Italian Armistice Commission, assisted by the inspection of the German control for Africa (KIA), until spring 1941. Epoque from which Germany decides to impose its exclusive military control over Morocco. General Schulteiss is the head of the inspection of the German control, which is divided into two committees: one for the Navy and Air Force, based in Casablanca, one for the Army, serving in Fedala (Mohammedia ). In Casablanca, the German soldiers, discreet enough, live in the area of Anfa. Also added some elements of the Gestapo (German secret police) and members of the Nazi secret service. During the first years of the war, Casablanca turns, moreover, in real nest of spies of the belligerent countries!
 THE ANTISEMITIC MEASURES
 Although spared by the German occupation, Morocco must align with the authoritarian and anti-Semitic policies of the Vichy regime, from July 1940 to November 1942. Thus, The protectorate established discriminatory laws made by the French State in 1940 and 1941, which exclude Jews from teaching, public service and away from the major sectors of the economy. In Casablanca, for example, 26 out of 30 Jewish lawyers are disbarred and 13 doctors over 16 are removed from the order. Meanwhile, 10,000 Algerian Jews living in Morocco, are deprived of their French nationality and relegated to the status of "indigenous".
In August 1941, the newly installed Israelites in the "European quarters" of Moroccan cities since 1939, are forced, in theory, to leave. In Casablanca, a decision of the Pasha, in 1937, forbade them the new medina, they have no choice but to squeeze into the Mellah (Jewish quarter of the Old Medina) or leave the city.
These discriminatory measures also hit the Israelite children. Abraham Serfaty, while the benches Lycée Lyautey of Casablanca, later recalled: "if there were no arrests, however, we eûmes right to prohibited and exclusions. So my sister had she leave the School, the numerus clausus which struck me as having spared revenge. "At night, some teachers defy these unjust actions and ensure ongoing illegal to these young victims of anti-Semitism! It was not until 1943 that all Jewish students find schools of their class and their classmates.
Finally, a few hundred French and foreign Jews, mainly from Central Europe, were interned in "guarded residence camps" real labor camps, divided on Moroccan territory, as in El Jadida, Leuh Ain Beni Mellal, Bou Arfa, Tadla, Mrirt, Tazmamert, Agdz and Ghbila. They stand alongside other French and Moroccan prisoners, Socialists, Communists and Freemasons. However, these do not concern internments Moroccan Jews and do not have a systematic and massive character for others. No Jew in the Kingdom of Morocco is deported to concentration camps and Nazi death in Europe, thus escaping the worst genocide in history, known as the Holocaust, resulting in the death of more than 5 million Jews. If the Israelites from Morocco were able to avoid the tragic fate of their coreligionists in Europe, they owe largely to the protection of the Sultan Sidi Mohammed ben Youssef and accommodation of the anti-Semitic policy, that had to concede the authorities Protectorate loyal to Vichy. Vichy, whose authority gradually fades in Morocco after the landing of the Americans, in November 1942, and with it all discriminatory measures against Jews. Nearly 250,000 Moroccan Jews therefore globally through the years 1940 to 1942 "free of persecution, most of them ignoring the existence of forced labor camps that were set up in Morocco by the Plan Vichy. (...) The Moroccan Jews had suffered a number of measures such as the inventory of the property, but they were never concerned with the saving protection late King Mohammed V, while French and foreign Jews had been secretly imprisoned by the authorities of the Protectorate. "(Serge Berdugo, Secretary General of the Council of Jewish Communities of Morocco, on the 60th anniversary of the Holocaust, 30 January 2005).
THE DETENTION OF SPANISH AND ITALIAN
Another category of population suffers under Vichy, discriminatory measures: the hundreds of Spanish Republican refugees in Morocco since 1939, after the victory of Franco and fascism in Spain, after a terrible civil war. Many of these refugees are settled in Casablanca (eg they represent 15% of the population of the district of Mâarif). This community, whose political ideals of the left or the extreme left are hated by Vichy, is under the supervision of the authorities of the Protectorate. Spaniards are even arrested and interned in camps like those of Azemmour or Oued Zem. Freemasons and the few resistant Gaullists, engaged the first time are also tracked by the French authorities, sometimes with the assistance of the Gestapo and the German secret service. After the American landing in Morocco, in November 1942, the Protectorate, which happened in the Allied camp, releases the Spanish Republicans, the Freemasons and the French Resistance.
It is the turn of the Italian population being suspected ... Fascist Italy of Mussolini being an ally of Nazi Germany. In Casablanca, for example, Italians are enclosed in a camp in Maarif: wooden barracks son with barbed wire, for those men who are sometimes treated fascist ... By their own neighbors!

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The Moroccan-American relations during the second World War

        The American presence in Morocco during the Second World War was in part a function of continuing economic interest in Morocco, in part a result of the wartime political and diplomatic relationship with France, and in part a function of the military course and direction of the war. In one way or another these were factors, motives, means, and objectives of American policy in Morocco.  

        The American landing, however, had a considerable impact among the Moroccans, Muslims and Jews; the presence of soldiers with modern equipment, the numerous shipments of basic products, the flow of dollars, etc. in other words, the display of American power obviously worked toward reducing French prestige. The deterioration of the French image and the increasing American impact can be discerned at various levels.[1]

        When the United States declared war against the Axis powers in 1941, France was not very enthusiastic, especially the French residency in morocco, to transform economic agreements with a neutral power into political or military commitment. Whenever a possible landing was mentioned, it was discouraged by the French. Charles Noguès, Resident General of French Morocco, told Robert Murphy that the native population “could not be trusted” and would use any landing as opportunity to attack the French and the expeditionary forces as well, only chaos and ruin would be the result. He added: “if Morocco becomes a battlefield, it will be lost to France”[2]  

        Newspapers, such as La Voix Nationale warmly greeted the Americans, stating that they had been hoping for the arrival of people who devoted themselves to liberate France and the world. Most important their insistence on the fact that the Moroccans were determined to fight beside the Allied forces without neglecting their own objective which was the recovery of Morocco’s independence.[3]

        The same admiration for the American economic and military superiority could be perceived in some Judeo-Arabic folk songs, which also expressed the confidence in the Allies’ victory over the Germans and the Italians. Another famous Moroccan singer, Houcine Slaoui, also focused on other significant aspects such as the social and psychological impact of the American presence in Morocco.[4]

        The Anfa conference and Sultan’s direct talks with President Franklin Roosevelt also played a major role in the radicalization of the nationalist movement. Roosevelt promises for help and cooperation, the nationalist’s pro-American sympathies, the creation of a “Roosevelt Club” by some eminent personalities from Rabat and Salé, could only worry the French and incite them to take action against American interference in Moroccan affairs.[5]

        Based on the above mentioned events, the American landing made a deep social and psychological impact on different aspects of the Moroccan population, Muslims and Jews, due to the military power and economic and cultural differences between the two countries, and political influence -whether direct or indirect- on the reformist phase of the nationalist movement and its period of radicalization.   

        

        

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[1] Mohammad Kenbib “The American Impact on Moroccan Nationalism (1930-1945)” in Bookin-Weiner, Jerome B. and El Manor, Mohammed (eds) The Atlantic Connection: 200 Years of Moroccan-American Relations 1786–1986. Edino Press, 1990, p. 179.

[2] Robert Murphy, Diplomat among Warriors Garden City, New York, 1964, p. 112.

[3] Mohammed Kenbib, op. cit., p. 179.

[4] Ibid., p. 179.

[5] Mohammed Kenbib, op. cit., p. 180.

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